Where Is The Hamelin Pool Marine Nature Reserve Located?

Hamelin Pool Marine Nature Reserve is located in Shark Bay.

The Hamelin Pool Marine Nature Reserve is located in Shark Bay in Western Australia. The area is approximately 24 to 27 degrees below the Equator and is comprised of 310,000 acres. This UNESCO World Heritage Site is renowned as one of only two locations in the entire world in which a diverse array of naturally occurring living marine stromatolites can be found. These ancient formations only form in a particular set of environmental conditions; specifically in shallow highly saline waters. They are composed of layers of sedimentary rock made up of a unique type of bacteria known as cyanobacteria. Taking the shape of mounds or columns, these structures provide modern visitors with a glimpse back into what life on Earth was like over 3,500 million years ago. The Hamelin Pool Marine Nature Reserve is scientifically and historically notable due to its rich biodiversity as well as the sheer abundance of stromatolites found here.

Location

Australia’s Hamelin Pool is situated in the eastern (or inner gulf) portion of Shark Bay which is geographically cut off from the rest of the bay by the Peron Peninsula. This particular piece of land, named after French naturalist François Péron, is characterized by rust-colored sand hills and gypsum hollows known as birridas by local residents. The Hamelin Pool can be found next to the Shark Bay Marine Park and Hamelin Pool Telegraph Station. Visitors can access the protected area using the Hamelin Pool Road and then proceeding along the grounds of the historic telegraph station.

Boardwalk Views

The Hamelin Pool Marine Nature Reserve includes a 656-foot boardwalk which serves to provide visitors with a one of a kind opportunity to get as close as possible to the stromatolites. Also called “living fossils”, the stromatolites must be protected due to the risks of damage being inflicted not only by naturally occurring environmental factors but also in relation to deterioration as a result of contact with the public.

UNESCO World Heritage Site

The Shark Bay World Heritage Site was named a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1991. Along with the Hamlin Pool Marine Nature Reserve, the area is also home to Old Hamelin Pool Telegraph Station which serves as a museum for tourists who have come here from around the globe. This building was constructed in 1884 and originally served as a telegram link between the local communities of Roebourne and Perth.

Flora and Fauna

The Hamelin Pool is not only home to an impressive array of stromatolites but many diverse species of plants and animals can also be found here. Among the fauna native to this region of Australia include birds (the chiming wedgebill, rufous fieldwren, malleefowl), reptiles (shoemaker frog, loggerhead turtle, and woma python), fish (manta ray, Hamelin cockle, and tiger shark), and mammals (desert mouse, banded hare-wallaby, and Shark Bay bandicoot). The presence of microbial mats in this environment is also noteworthy in terms of furthering our knowledge as to what life was like here three billion years ago. Microbial mats, which are made up of various complicated ecosystems, are widely regarded by scientific experts as having played a part in the evolution of life on Earth but further study is needed in order to uncover the specifics of their actual role.

Where Is The End of the World Route?

The End of the World Route is located in Chile.

Interestingly, there is a tourist scenic route in Chile is known as “End of the World Route.” This route is located in the Antarctic region of Magallanes and Chile in the southeast region of Chile. The term “end of the world” is simply used in reference to Chile being the southernmost country in the world. Chilean Patagonia is the country’s southernmost region and also the extreme southern part of the American continent.

About The Route Of The Parks

In recent years, the government of Chile and its partners have made great progress in protecting its natural beauty. The conservation work culminated with the creation of Route of the Parks, a 1,740-mile route connecting 17 national parks across the country. The route is a hiking trail which runs from Puerto Montt to Cape Horn. It features three existing routes including End of the World Route, Southern Way, and Patagonia Channel. The idea of the trail was conceived by Tompkins Conservation with the foundation donating vast lands to the Chile government for the creation of the national parks and the Patagonia Route of Parks connecting all the 17 parks. The route crosses three regions from north to south; Los Lagos, Aysen, and Magallanes (where End of the World Route is located). In total, the park route passes through 60 communities, habitats of about 140 birds’ species, 24 ecosystems, and several terrestrial and marine species.

Chilean Patagonia

Patagonia is an area shared by Chile and Argentina and situated at the southern end of South America. This region is sparsely populated and consists mainly of the southern portion of the Andes. It is also one of the regions of the world with coasts on three oceans; Atlantic, Pacific, and Southern Oceans. The Chilean Patagonia has abundant animal life and vegetation and experiences high rainfall than Argentine Patagonia. The two Chilean regions entirely within Patagonia are Magallanes and Aysen while Los Lagos is partly located in the region. The Route of Parks which runs from the north to the south of Chilean Patagonia connects the Carretera Austral with Patagonia Channel and End of the World Route.

Attractions Along The End Of The World Route

Although there are 17 parks along the Route of the Parks, individual parks and attractions along the section of End of the World Route are yet to be verified. When highlighting the attractions, even those along the Carretera Austral and the Patagonia Channel are always considered. Some of the popular parks that may be considered to be located along the path of the End of the World Route, especially in the region of Magallanes include Bernardo O’Higgins National Park (the largest national park in Chile and one of the largest in the world), Pali Aike National Park (known for large species of birds), Kawesqar National Park, Torres del Paine National Park (declared 8th wonder of the world and UNESCO Biosphere Reserve), and Cabo de Hornos National Park. Other protected areas that are located along this route are Magallanes National Reserve, Pinguino Rey Park, and Cerro Paine Reserve.

What Is A Vernal Pool?

A vernal pool supports a distinct group of flora and fauna.

A vernal pool, also known as an ephemeral pool, is a seasonal pond of water that provides a habitat for unique and rare animals and plants. These pools, which have varying sizes, mostly occur in Mediterranean climate conditions. Usually, this type of wetland does not have fish living in the water thus providing the perfect conditions for natal species of insects and amphibians that cannot survive predation or competition from fish. However, certain fish species, such as killifishes, have specifically adapted for this kind of habitat.

Since they are seasonal, the season between winter and spring means that the water levels are varied but the pond may dry out completely in fall and spring. At times, the pools may dry out completely and refill several times in one season. Sometimes, the pools are interconnected by a series of small outlets known as vernal swales thus leading to the formation of a complex. Beneath the pool, there is a bedrock or an equally hard bed that helps to ensure the water does not drain away.

Habitat

The habitats of these pools are unique considering that they may dry up completely at times. When they have water, they fill up with various species of plants and animals with the most common being toads and breeding frogs although some salamanders also use them mostly for breeding. Other species, which are also indicator species for vernal pools, include the likes of fairy shrimp, wood frogs, some mole salamanders, and the spadefoot toad. The last two are indicator species in the New England region of the United States. Plants also grow in the pools although they vary from one ecological region to another.

Due to the favorable conditions that are present when vernal pools fill up, flowering is almost always simultaneous. These favorable conditions include high moisture, reduced competition, favorable weather, and salinity of the water. Some of the plant species include the likes of false Venus’s looking glass, pincushion plants, Solano grass, and others. Some unique species include the San Diego mesa mint, which is extremely rare and grows in some San Diego vernal pools. Other rare species are Lasthenia conjugens (San Fransico Bay Area) and Limnanthes vinculans (California).

Loss and Preservation

Despite their unique role in the preservation of unique plant life, a huge percentage of the pools have been destroyed. For example, 90% of the ecosystems created by the pool in California have been destroyed. Even more worrying is the fact that most of the destruction occurred recently. Some of the threats to vernal pools include things like changes in hydrology, urbanization, climate change, agriculture, and irresponsible livestock grazing.

Naturally, their uniqueness means that these pools have to be restored or protected more. Despite the efforts by the relevant authorities, the success rate is not consistent. Some of the theories put forward for this varied success are that the constructed pools are deeper, have steeper slopes, and have narrower edges. Mitigation strategies, where an entity can destroy a protected habitat on the condition that it will replace the habitat, are therefore ineffective for vernal pools since their restoration and replacement have proven difficult.

What Is Red Tide?

Red Tide in Florida has killed whales, manatees, sea turtles, seabirds, and fish over the summer of 2018.

Red tide refers to a common phenomenon in the world where there is a bloom in the concentration of algae due to dinoflagellates and other creatures. Some of the dinoflagellates and phytoplankton found in the red tide contain pigments of varying colors that enable photosynthesis. When the phenomenon of red tide happens, the water usually appears discolored or dirty. The color of the water then ranges from a rust brown, pink, or even blood red.

Concerning where it happens, species that cause red tide exist in bays, oceans, and in places where saltwater meets up with salty water. However, these species can only survive in salty water. Several factors including wind, salinity, and nutrients affect the rate of growth of these species.

Factors That May Contribute To Red Tide

While the exact reason for the occurrence of red tide is unknown, there are a number of theories that have been set forth by experts in the field. One of the theories is that the tide is caused by the waste that people dump into oceans and water bodies such as agricultural runoff and sewage. Another reason set forth is the season of the weather. Experts have been able to discern that the bloom is more pronounced in the summer when it is warmer than during the other seasons which are typically colder. However, it is important to note that recent changes in climatic patterns mean that blooms are also happening in the winter. Another theory is that there is an increase in dust that is rich in iron from the Sahara Desert. This dust is thought to provide the necessary nutrients for the species of the red tide to bloom. Others have theorized that some blooms happening in the Pacific Coast are due to large-scale climatic occurrences such as the destructive El Niño. In the Gulf of Mexico, red tides have been a common occurrence for a long time, but it is also unclear why it happens.

Effects of Red Tide on Wildlife

While these natural occurrences are not always toxic, there are those that produce devastating toxins to marine life. In the cases where they are harmful, it is typical to see dead fish washing up to the shore for a period that may be up to two weeks after the tide has passed.

Not all marine life is affected though. Some creatures such as clams, oysters, and mollusks are immune to the toxin to the point where they store it in their bodies. The problem to other creatures happens when the shellfish eat the organisms that cause the red tide and then end up getting eaten themselves by other creatures. Consequently, the deadly toxins end up being transferred to other organisms. Some of the toxins, such as saxitoxin, can cause paralysis or even death if ingested.

The cycle also affects human beings since they eat fish. By feeding on contaminated shellfish, human beings expose themselves to conditions relating to neural transmissions. Some of the toxins even have the ability to become aerosolized and get into the human body through breathing. People who inhale these aerosols usually develop breathing complications within one hour of exposure.

Florida Red Tide 2018

The Florida Red Tide, caused by Karenia brevis blooms in the eastern Gulf of Mexico, have been particularly bad over the Summer 2018 season. As of July 31st, 2018, 90 sea turtles, 250 manatees, a whale shark, thousands of fish including 10 goliath groupers, and hundreds sea birds such as double-breasted cormorants and brown pelicans have turned up severely sick or dead. The city of Sanibel, Florida has estimated the fish kill to be six dead fish for every foot of beach. The red tide has lasted for more than a year and a half and is considered the largest red tide disaster since 2006.

What Is a Tide Pool?

Tide pool are created in rocky coastal crevices from the retreating tide.

Tide pools form when the sea or ocean tide moves from the rocky coastal areas leaving behind crevices and holes with ocean water trapped in them. The remaining water when the tide moves out forms a series of shallow or deep pools along the coastal rocky crevices. When the sea or ocean water rises during the high tide, the tidal pools are refilled again, in what is a continuous cycle. The marine life left behind in the tide pools gets exposed to harsh conditions. The fish and invertebrates left behind also get preyed upon by predators. Hence researchers describe the tide pool as the most competitive marine habitation in the sea and ocean, according to the Smithsonian Institute.

Ocean Tides

Ocean or sea tides occur due to the earth’s rotation and the moon’s strong gravitational pull on the earth according to the Coastal Institute. Since water is a liquid its responds to the moon’s gravitational force easily. The force of the tide, is strongest on the side of the earth that is facing moon. But on the opposite side of earth from the moon, the tide is weaker. This difference in gravitational forces results in the ocean waters bulging in two places at the same time. The high sea or ocean tide occurs on the side of the earth facing the moon, and the low tide occurs on the opposite side of the earth that’s away from the moon. This low tide causes a series of tide pools to be created on the sea or ocean coasts.

Tide Pool Zones

Like the sea or the ocean, a tide pool has zones of different depths. These are the splash, intertidal, and sub-tidal zones that each having varying densities of marine ecosystems.

Splash Zone

The splash zone at the top is the harshest for marine life. The only water present there is the infrequent mist or gush from sea or ocean waters. The splash zone is extremely hot due to sun exposure, and very salty due to constant evaporation. As a result, there is little marine life on it like some algae and sporadic barnacle arthropods.

Intertidal Zone

Below the splash zone is the intertidal zone which has more marine life. The intertidal zone has high, mid, and low intertidal zones created by the varying strength of tides daily. The high intertidal zone under the splash zone is covered by water only during the highest tides. In this zone, snails, barnacles, crabs, and anemone flowers begin to appear. From mid to low intertidal there is more water, food, and shelter, and the diversity and amount of marine increases. In these zones, crabs, sea stars, anemones, and snails are found from the mid to low intertidal zones.

Sub-Tidal Zone

The sub-tidal zone is the deepest and the final zone and water is always ever present here. Fish and marine invertebrates are found in this zone. This zone also has foraging areas for adult salmon, sea otters, seals and diving birds. The sub-tidal zone also has kelp forests that provide habitation for sea urchins and diverse marine invertebrates, and breeding ground for fish according to research by the U.S. National Park Service.

Benefits of Tide Pool

Tide pools allow fishermen to easily catch fish, crabs, clams and mussels for consumption. In low tide zones, people can do aquaculture by planting edible plants, and rearing clams like the geoduck on the tide pools. But encroaching on tide pools by humans can disturb the harmony of marine ecosystem present in the tide pools and pollute them.

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The Largest Cities in England

London city is one of the largest cities in England, followed by Birmingham and Manchester.

England is part of the United Kingdom and shares its boundaries with Scotland, Wales, Irish Sea, and the Celtic Sea. It covers approximately 63% of the island of Great Britain which is in the North Atlantic. England is the most populous country in the UK with a population of around 54 million people, accounting for about 84% of the United Kingdom’s total population. Its developed economy is one of the largest in the world and the biggest part of the UK’s economy. The cities of England are some of the most frequented places in the UK because of their attractions, history, and entertainment options. Here is a brief overview of some of the largest cities in England.

The Three Largest Cities in England

1. London

London is the capital and the largest city in England. It fascinates and attracts millions of tourists every year. London is located on River Thames on the southeastern side of the island of Great Britain. It covers an area of approximately 1,583 square kilometers and has a population of 8.6 million people. London is one of the leading global cities in commerce, entertainment, healthcare, media, and transportation. London is the largest financial center in the world.

2. Birmingham

The metropolitan area of Birmingham is the second most populated city in England. Known as the “city of a thousand trades,” Birmingham is approximately two-hour drive northwest of London. It covers an area of approximately 232 square miles and has a population of about 2.8 million people. Birmingham’s economy is the second-largest in the UK after London and is mainly driven by the service sector.

3. Manchester

Manchester is the third most populous urban area in the UK with a population of approximately 2.7 million people. It is located about 160 miles northwest of London and is bordered by mountain chains known as the Pennines that run from north to east. Manchester attained city status in 1853. The city was linked to the sea in 1894 when the Port of Manchester was created. In 2014, Manchester was ranked a beta world city making it the second-highest ranked British city. It is the third-most visited city in the UK after London and Edinburg. Manchester is known for its culture, sports, transportation, media, architecture, and engineering output.

The Growth of Big Cities in England

The growth of most of the largest cities in England commenced at the onset of the industrial age in the 18th century. They experienced intense development during the 19th century, changing beyond recognition. Before the Industrial Revolution, the cities were all small towns with very low population densities. Today, these big cities are credited for the industrial power of England and by extension the UK. They are major economic centers in Europe and receive millions of tourists every year.

What’s the Largest Cities in England?

London is the capital and the largest city in England. It has a metro population of around 9.7 million people. After London, Manchester is the largest city with 2.5 million people. Birmingham is the third largest city in England with a metro population of around 2.4 million people.

The Largest Cities in England

Rank	City	Population (2020)
1	Greater London	8,674,000
2	Birmingham (West Midlands)	2,834,000
3	Greater Manchester	2,756,000
4	West Yorkshire	2,282,000
5	North East	1,957,000
6	Liverpool	1,525,000
7	Sheffield	1,375,000
8	Bristol	1,119,000

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Latitude and Longitude Facts

Latitude (shown as a horizontal line) is the angular distance, in degrees, minutes, and seconds of a point north or south of the Equator. Lines of latitude are often referred to as parallels.

Longitude (shown as a vertical line) is the angular distance, in degrees, minutes, and seconds, of a point east or west of the Prime (Greenwich) Meridian. Lines of longitude are often referred to as meridians.

Distance between Lines

If you divide the circumference of the earth (approximately 25,000 miles) by 360 degrees, the distance on the earth’s surface for each one degree of latitude or longitude is just over 69 miles, or 111 km. Note: As you move north or south of the equator, the distance between the lines of longitude gets shorter until they actually meet at the poles. At 45 degrees N or S of the equator, one degree of longitude is about 49 miles.

Minutes and Seconds

For precision purposes, degrees of longitude and latitude have been divided into minutes (‘) and seconds (“). There are 60 minutes in each degree. Each minute is divided into 60 seconds. Seconds can be further divided into tenths, hundredths, or even thousandths. For example, our office on Galveston Island, Texas, USA, is located at 29 degrees, 16 minutes, and 22 seconds north of the equator, and 94 degrees, 49 minutes and 46 seconds west of the Prime Meridian.

Another example, our office on Galveston Island, Texas, USA, is located at 29 degrees, 16 minutes, and 22 seconds north of the equator, and 94 degrees, 49 minutes and 46 seconds west of the Prime Meridian.

Relative Locations

Relative Location of a city or destination on the planet is its relationship to another place or nearby landmarks.

As an example, our U.S. office is on Galveston Island, located in southeastern Texas in the Gulf of Mexico, about 48 miles southeast of Houston. That’s our relative location.

Absolute Locations

Absolute Location is the definitive location of a place using a recognized coordinate system. In terms of latitude and longitude, our office in Galveston, Texas, is 29°16′ North, 94°49′ West, marked with the red dot on the map above.

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How Many Planets Are There in the Solar System

There are eight planets in our solar system: Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune.

The number of galaxies in the universe is largely unknown to humans. In fact, scientists speculate that there may be an infinite number of galaxies. Our galaxy, the Milky Way, is estimated to host about 100 billion planets most of which orbit a star. In the near past, astronomers have discovered hundreds of planets in our galaxy, some of whom exhibit some Earth-like characteristics. Our solar system comprises of the sun, eight planets and their moons, and several small solar system bodies. 

Previously, Pluto was considered to be the ninth planet in the Solar System. However, in 2006, Pluto was demoted to the status of a “dwarf planet” due to more concrete, strict definitions of what a planet is. To be a planet, an object must not only orbit the Sun but also have sufficient mass to have a rounded shape induced by gravity. A potential planet must also be the most important object in its “neighborhood.”

The planets in the Solar System are as follows: 

• Mercury 
• Venus 
• Earth
• Mars
• Jupiter
• Saturn
• Uranus
• Neptune

8. Mercury

Mercury is the closest planet to the sun. It is also the smallest planet in our solar system. Mercury completes a full revolution around the sun in 88 days. It is a rocky planet with an equatorial radius of 1,516 miles. Interestingly, Mercury does not have an atmosphere. This means that the temperature on Mercury can fluctuate from 840 °F during the day to minus 275 °F during the night!

Mercury’s orbit is oval-shaped. On some occasions, Mercury can be viewed from Earth.

7. Venus

Venus is the second closest planet to the sun. Venus is also the hottest planet with a mean temperature of 863 °F. The atmosphere on Venus is dense and traps warm air within it. Venus is Earth’s closest neighbor.

Venus has the longest revolution and rotation times of any planet in the solar system. Venus takes 224.7 Earth days to revolve around the sun. The rotation of Venus on its axis is so slow that it takes the equivalent of 243 Earth days to complete a single rotation, which means a single day on Venus is longer than a whole year on Venus.

6. Earth

Planet Earth is the only planet known to host life. It completes a revolution around the sun every 365.256 days. It is 92,955,820 miles away from the sun and is the third closest planet to the sun.

It is estimated that the formation of Earth began 4.54 billion years ago. Its total surface area is 196,940,000 square miles, 71% of which is covered by water while the remaining 29% is land. The Earth’s atmosphere protects life from uninhabitable space, shields us from harmful radiation, and controls the weather. Earth is the densest planet in the Solar System.

5. Mars

Mars, also known as the “red planet,” is the fourth planet in the solar system as well as the second smallest one. It has a solid surface just like the Earth, but its atmosphere is thin.

Mars is half the size of the Earth and is 143,000,000 miles from the sun. Mars is sometimes visible from the Earth in the evening due to its bright surface. Liquid water is not found on the surface of the planet due to the low atmospheric pressure. Researchers are examining the possibility that life once existed on Mars. Scientists believe that the ice caps on the poles of the planet are made up of water and that the ice on the south pole would fill the planet’s surface to a depth of 36 ft if melted.

4. Jupiter

Jupiter is the fifth and largest planet in the solar system. Along with Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune, Jupiter is considered to be one of the Solar System’s gas giants. Jupiter’s mass is 2.5 times the total mass of the other planets combined. Jupiter is a gaseous planet meaning that it has no solid surface, although researchers believe that its core is solid. Jupiter is so large that 1,300 Earths would fit inside it.

Jupiter’s atmosphere is violent. Wind speed travels at an average speed of 340 mph, twice the speed of a category five hurricane on earth. The planet has three rings made of dust particles that are difficult to see. It takes 12 Earth years for Jupiter to make a revolution around the sun.

3. Saturn

Saturn is the second-largest planet in the solar system after Jupiter. It is a gaseous planet just like Jupiter but has nine continuous rings and several ringlets made of rocks and ice. It is considered the most beautiful planet in the solar system and is composed of hydrogen and helium.

The diameter of Saturn is nine times that of the Earth. Its volume equals that of 763.5 Earths, and its surface is equal to 83 Earths. However, it weighs only one-eighth the mass of the Earth. Saturn has nearly 150 moons, 53 of whom have been named.

2. Uranus

Uranus is the third-largest planet in the solar system. Its surface is composed of a frozen component and it is therefore considered an ice giant. However, its atmosphere is made up of hydrogen and helium alongside other “ices” such as methane, ammonia, and water.

Although it is not the furthest planet from the sun, it is the coldest with temperatures that reach −224 °C. Uranus is the only planet that does not radiate heat from its core. Uranus is around 2 billion miles from the sun.

1. Neptune

Neptune is the furthest planet from the sun. It was first considered a fixed star by Galileo who used mathematical predictions to discover it rather than the regular method of making observations. It is nearly 2.8 billion miles from the sun and completes a revolution round the sun every 164.8 Earth years.

Neptune completed its first revolution in 2011 since it was discovered in 1846. It has 14 known moons with Triton being the largest. Its atmosphere consists of hydrogen and helium. It is the windiest planet in the solar system, hosting nine times the average wind speed of the Earth. Recently, NASA discovered that Neptune had flowing rivers and lakes of liquid methane.

How Many Planets Are There?

There are eight planets in our solar system: Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune.

The Most Addictive Drugs In The World

The most addictive drugs are used by individuals around the world, heroin, cocaine and nicotine.

Drug addiction can be defined as a relapse of the brain that is brought on by compulsive and frequent use of drugs despite the harmful side effects. Addiction is a brain disease because drugs change the structure and functioning of the brain which may also lead to negative behaviors if drugs are abused. Some individuals depend on specific drugs for the functioning of certain parts of their body and may feel they are not able to function without taking drugs. Harmful drugs are regulated based on their effects and risk. The method and process of classification are neither specified nor transparent thus undermining their accuracy and health education message. Some of the most addictive drugs are outlined below.

Common Addictive Drugs

Heroin

Heroin is an opiate commonly used as a recreational drug because of its euphoric effect. It is occasionally used to relieve pain. It is often injected into the body through the veins but can also be smoked, snorted, and inhaled. Heroin is one of the most addictive drugs in the world – about 25% of those who use it become physically dependent. Tolerance to the drug is developed faster and more doses are required to achieve the same effect. Common side effects include respiratory issues, depression, decreased kidney function, abscesses, and contamination. The WHO estimates that 3.8 to 4.2% of the population of Canada, the US, and Mexico use opioids half of which with heroin. The use of heroin is especially rampant in Vermont, West Virginia, Baltimore, and New Jersey.

Cocaine

Cocaine is a powerful stimulant drug that is obtained from leaves of a cocoa plant usually found in South America. It is commonly used as a recreational drug and is generally snorted, inhaled, or injected into the veins. Health care providers use cocaine as local anesthesia for some surgeries. It is an illegal drug in most countries where its sale and use may lead to prosecution. Dependence on the drug occurs after a short period of use. Cocaine has several side effects including loss of contact with reality, excitement, and agitation. Its use also exposes one to the risk of stroke, lung problems, blood infection, and cardiac arrest. Cocaine is the most illegally used drug in the world with 14 million to 20 million people using the drug each year.

Nicotine

Nicotine is a stimulant known as Parasympathomimetic and is found in the nightshade family of plants. It is made up of about 0.6 to 3% of dry weight tobacco. Nicotine is often used for recreational purposes because of its stimulant effect. Common nicotine products include cigars, snuff, snus, and cigarettes. Nicotine is highly addictive because of its stimulant effect which leads to physical dependence and tolerance. The long-term effects of nicotine are not clear because it is consumed via the tobacco product. The general medical position is that nicotine poses few health risks while its connection to cancer is still being studied. It exposes an unborn baby to type 2 diabetes and obesity later in life. Nicotine is consumed in almost all countries of the world across all age groups depending on social settings.

Treatment of Drug Addiction

Medicine and behavioral therapies are two common treatments used for drug addiction. Methadone and Buprenorphine can be used for heroin addictions and Modanifi can be used for the treatment of nicotine addiction. Medicine helps to reduce cravings and withdrawal symptoms in a drug user. Behavioral therapies include contingency measures and cognitive-behavioral therapy. Contingency measures include motivational incentives such as rewarding drug addicts for positive behaviors such as staying away from drugs. Cognitive-behavioral therapies aim at reducing triggers and stress that causes one to take the drugs.

What’s the Most Addictive Drugs in the World?

Heroin is an opiate commonly used as a recreational drug because of its euphoric effect. It is occasionally used to relieve pain. It is often injected into the body through the veins but can also be smoked, snorted, and inhaled. Heroin is one of the most addictive drugs in the world – about 25% of those who use it become physically dependent.

The Most Addictive Drugs In The World

Rank	Drug	Pharmacological Classification
1	Heroin	Opiate
2	Cocaine	Stimulant; Triple Reuptake Inhibitor
3	Nicotine	Parasympathomimetic Stimulant
4	Methadone	Opiate
5	Barbiturates	Central Nervous System Depressant
6	Alcohol	Depressant
7	Benzodiazepine	Psychoactive Agent
8	Amphetamines	Substituted Derivatives of Amphetamine
9	Buprenorphine	Semi-synthetic Opioid
10	Ketamine	Hallucinogen

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The Hottest And Coldest Planets Of Our Solar System

Despite being closer to the sun, Mercury is not the hottest planet in the solar system as the planet Venus holds this title.

Planets vary in temperatures as they vary in structure and distance from the sun. Temperatures are influenced by the distance of planets from the sun – as the distance increases, the temperature decreases. Both interior and exterior factors are responsible for temperature variations within the planets. The nature and composition of the atmosphere, for example, determines the amount of heat radiated and how much heat the planet retains.

Venus

Venus is the second planet from the sun and the hottest in the solar system. Its temperatures can reach 464ºC. The high temperatures are due to a dense atmosphere with a thick cloud cover. Carbon dioxide makes up the bulk of the planet’s atmospheric gasses thus acting as a blanket that keeps heat from escaping the planet. The temperatures are regular throughout the year with slightly negligible variations. In contrast to other planets, its small elliptical tilt of 3º does not affect temperatures, allowing them to remain steady.

Mercury

Mercury is the first and smallest planet in the solar system. Although it is nearest to the sun, it is the second hottest. Unlike Venus, Mercury lacks an atmosphere thus experiences varying temperatures throughout the day. The temperature may fall to -93ºC or rise to 427ºC with an average of 167ºC. The temperatures on Mercury are under a direct influence from the sun. Therefore, the side facing the sun is often scorching while that on the shadowed side is freezing. Astronomers believe the polar regions of Mercury are never reached by the sun and therefore could be colder than the cloud tops of Jupiter.

Pluto

Pluto is a dwarf planet made of ice and rock. Originally thought to be the ninth planet, Pluto is the furthest from the sun and has recorded the coldest temperatures at an average of -225ºC. The temperatures in Pluto are influenced by its closeness to the sun – when the planet is close to the sun, temperatures warm up enough to sublime nitrogen within Pluto’s atmosphere. Surface temperatures are cooler than atmospheric temperatures due to the influence of methane which creates a temperature inversion. Pressure waves in the atmosphere reduce the temperatures making them cooler than expected.

Neptune

Ever since the disqualification of Pluto as a planet, Neptune is considered the coldest planet with average temperatures of -200ºC. Neptune is the eighth planet in the solar system composed of primarily hydrogen and helium gasses. Neptune experiences pressure and temperature variations depending on the altitude. Due to its distance from the sun, the temperatures on Neptune are influenced more by the radiation within it than from the sun. Its elliptical tilt of 23.4º warms up the sun-facing side raising temperatures by about 10º – enough to allow methane to escape. In their interior, planets also experience temperature variations which occur during their movement around the sun or as an influence of internal factors such as winds and pressure changes. Gaseous planets lack a defined surface temperature as compared to terrestrial planets.

Average temperatures of other planets are: Earth (15ºC), Mars (-65ºC), Jupiter (-110ºC), Saturn (-140ºC) and Uranus (-195ºC).

What are the Hottest and Coldest Planets in the Solar System?

Venus is the second planet from the sun and the hottest in the solar system. Its temperatures can reach 464 degrees Celsius. Ever since the disqualification of Pluto as a planet, Neptune is considered the coldest planet with an average temperatures of -200 degrees Celsius.

The Hottest And Coldest Planets Of Our Solar System

Rank	Planet	Mean Temperature (C)
1	Venus	464
2	Mercury	167
3	Earth	15
4	Mars	-65
5	Jupiter	-110
6	Saturn	-140
7	Uranus	-195
8	Neptune	-200
9	Pluto	-225

The Coldest Planet in the Solar System

Uranus, the seventh planet from the sun, is the third largest planet in the solar system, as well as the coldest. Learn more about this ice giant here.

How Far Is Uranus From The Sun?

Uranus is located at a distance of about 2.88 billion km or 19.2 AU from the Sun. Since the planet follows an elliptical orbit to complete its revolution around the Sun, the above figure only represents the average distance between the planet and the Sun. At its closest point to the Sun, also known as the perihelion position, Uranus is 2.75 billion km or 18.4 AU away from the Sun. At the aphelion position or the most distant point, Uranus is separated from the Sun by a distance of 3 billion km or 20.1 AU.

How Far Is Uranus From The Earth?

The distance between the Earth and Uranus varies constantly depending on the movements of both the planets around the Sun. The closest distance between the two planets is 2.57 billion km and their furthest distance is 3.15 billion km.

Who Discovered Uranus?

Sir William Herschel, a British astronomer, observed the planet on March 13, 1781. He recorded his observations in the garden of his house in Somerset, England and reported it on April 26, 1781, where he misidentified the planet as a comet.

How Did Uranus Get Its Name?

The name of Uranus is derived directly from the name of a figure in Greek mythology, Uranus, the Greek deity of the sky.

What Is The Density Of Uranus?

The density of Uranus is 1.27 g per cubic cm, making it the Solar System’s second least dense planet.

What Is The Diameter Of Uranus?

The diameter of Uranus is 51,118 km and thus is four times bigger than the diameter of our planet Earth.

How Many Earths Would Fit In Uranus?

Uranus has a total volume of 6.833×10^13 cubic km. That means that 63 Earths would fit inside Uranus!

What Is Uranus Made Of?

Uranus is the second least dense planet in the Solar System after Saturn. The fact gives a clue about the composition of the planet. Various ices like methane, ammonia, and water make up the planet. The mass of ice in Uranus is not precisely known and is believed to vary between 9.3 and 13.5 Earth masses. Non-ice mass, hydrogen, and helium contributed to the remaining mass of the planet. Uranus can be divided into three layers: an inner rocky core, a middle icy mantle, and an outer gaseous layer made of hydrogen and helium.

How Many Rings Does Uranus Have?

Uranus has 13 known rings that range in radii from about 38,000 km to about 98,000 km. The rings are made of large bodies ranging in diameter from 0.2 to 20 m.

The Atmosphere Of Uranus

Uranus has a unique atmosphere consisting of three layers, the troposphere, the stratosphere, and the thermosphere. The atmosphere of the planet is the coldest in the Solar System and has temperatures dropping as low as 49 K. The lower layers of the atmosphere are rich in volatiles like methane, water, and ammonia. The upper atmosphere is composed mainly of hydrogen and helium.

How Many Moons Does Uranus Have?

Uranus has 27 moons or natural satellites. However, the moons of Uranus are the least massive among the moons of the giant planets of the solar system. The largest moon of Uranus, Titania, has a radius of 788.9 km that makes it the eighth largest moon in the Solar System. The moons are composed mainly of rock and ice in a roughly 1:1 ratio.

What Is The Temperature Of Uranus?

Uranus is the coldest planet in the Solar System. The temperature near the cloud tops of the planet is about -216 degrees Celsius. The lowest temperature recorded in the tropopause of Uranus is −224 degrees Celsius.

Can Uranus Support Life?

If is difficult to answer the question whether Uranus can support life since the planet has conditions that both promote as well as discourage the survival of living beings. The planet has methane in abundance, a key biosignature. There is the possibility that a liquid ocean composed of water is present near the core. However, the bad news is that there is immense pressure in the planet’s core that would not support any life form known to us. Also, Uranus has the coldest atmosphere in the Solar System. So, no Earth-based life can survive under such extreme conditions but specially adapted extraterrestrial life might!

How Long Is One Day On Uranus?

A day in Uranus is shorter than that on Earth and lasts for 17 hrs, 14 min, and 24 sec.

What Is The Length Of A Year On Uranus?

Uranus takes 84 Earth-years to orbit the Sun once.

Is Uranus An Inner Or An Outer Planet?

Uranus is an outer planet of the Solar System as determined by its distance from the sun.

What Is The Coldest Planet In The Solar System?

Uranus is the coldest planet in the Solar System. The temperature near the cloud tops of the planet is about -216 degrees Celsius. The lowest temperature recorded in the tropopause of Uranus is -224 degrees Celsius.

The Coldest Cities In Russia

Khabarovsk is the coldest among the 25 coldest cities in Russia with an average winter temperature of -22.0.

Climate In Russia

Khabarovsk is the coldest among the 25 largest cities in Russia with an average winter temperature of -22.0 degrees Celsius. Russia is an extensive country, and different regions experience different climatic conditions at any given time. The country is characterized by a number of continental zones. In the Northern and Far East regions, for example, winters are long and harsh. Winters in Russia are characterized by snow, frost, snowstorms, and winter chills.

Which Are The Top Three Coldest Major Cities Of Russia?

Khabarovsk

The coldest city in Russia is Khabarovsk, with an average winter temperature of -22.0 degrees Celsius. The city lies in Russia’s Far East region, and it is home to an estimated 577,441 inhabitants. Khabarovsk has a continental climate marked by cold and dry winters and warm and humid summers. The city’s winter months are November, December, January, and February. Snowfall during this period is light, and its average maximum height is estimated at 13 cm. The lowest temperature during winter is recorded on January 17, when temperatures fall to -25 degrees Celsius.

Novosibirsk

The city of Novosibirsk lies in proximity to the Ob River Valley in Siberia’s southwestern region. It serves as the administrative center of Novosibirsk Oblast. The city’s weather is classified as a humid continental climate marked by warm summers. The climatic conditions in the city are typical of the rest of Siberia. The winter season lasts from November to February with an average temperature of -20.0 degrees Celsius. In the coldest days, temperatures fall to between -30 and -35 degrees Celsius. Several reasons have been put forward to explain the cold temperatures in the city. One, the city’s northern region lacks tall mountains to block freezing Arctic winds. The other reason is the absence of ocean near the city. Despite the harsh winter temperatures, Novosibirsk is densely populated, with inhabitants totaling to 1,567,087. Omsk

The Russian city of Omsk is located in the southwestern part of Siberia, and it serves as the administrative center of Omsk Oblast. It is the country’s seventh-largest city with a population estimated at 1,154,116 inhabitants. It is also one of Russia’s coldest cities with an average winter temperature of -20.0 degrees Celcius. Omsk has a dry and continental climate marked by dynamic changes in weather conditions. The city has long winter months, and temperatures can fall to as low as -35 degrees Celsius.

Chelyabinsk

Chelyabinsk city is at the center of administration in Chelyabinsk Oblast. It lies east of the Ural Mountains, and it is home to 1,156,201 inhabitants. Chelyabinsk has a moderate continental climate. The winter season in the city begins in November and extends all the way to March. The average winter temperature is recorded at -18.0 degrees Celsius. January is the coldest month and temperatures average at -15.7 degrees Celsius. The city’s numerous industrial plants make it one of the most polluted of Russian cities.

The Coldest Place In Russia

Oymyako is a rural locality in Russia found near River Indigirka. The region is one of the coldest and permanently inhabited regions in the whole planet. The population of Oymyako stands at 500 people, and the region lies at 750 meters above sea level. Oymyako experiences daylight of three hours in December and 21 hours in June. The ground surface is permanently frozen, and in 1924 it recorded -71.2 degrees Celsius, which is the lowest ever recorded temperatures in a habited place.

The Coldest Cities In Russia

Rank	City	Average Winter Temp (°C)
1	Khabarovsk	-22.0
2	Novosibirsk	-20.0
3	Omsk	-20.0
4	Chelyabinsk	-18.0
5	Krasnoyarsk	-18.0
6	Tolyatti	-18.0
7	Yekaterinburg	-17.0
8	Volgograd	-16.0
9	Barnaul	-15.5
10	Nizhny Novgorod	-15.0
11	Perm	-15.0
12	Irkutsk	-15.0
13	Samara	-14.0
14	Kazan	-14.0
15	Ufa	-14.0
16	Izhevsk	-14.0
17	Vladivostok	-14.0
18	Moscow	-13.0
19	Saratov	-12.0
20	Ulyanovsk	-11.0
21	Yaroslavl	-11.0
22	Saint Petersburg	-10.0
23	Rostov-on-Don	-7.0
24	Krasnodar	-7.0
25	Voronezh	-6.0

The post The Coldest Cities In Russia appeared first on Gradaxis.

source https://gradaxis.com/the-coldest-cities-in-russia/

The Coldest Cities in The USA

The coldest cities in the USA have average minimum temperatures as well as the coldest record breaking temperatures.

During winter, the temperature drops to below the freezing point in many US cities. During the last winter season in the US, most states on the East Coast suffered a devastating winter storm. By January 2018, about sixteen people had lost their lives to the blizzard conditions. Every year, most places in the US experience extreme winters. With such extreme weather conditions, some cities have experienced record-breaking cold temperatures.

10 Coldest Cities in the USA

Fairbanks

Fairbanks is in Alaska and is the largest city in the interior of the state. The city is the borough seat of Fairbanks North Star Borough with a population of 31,891. The city, whose motto is “The Golden Heart of Alaska”, was incorporated on November 10, 1903. Fairbanks, Alaska, records a minimum average temperature of -16.9 °F. The city’s maximum average temperature stands at 52.3 degrees F. The lowest ever recorded temperature in Fairbanks, Alaska is -66 degrees F, making it the coldest city in the US. Most of the low temperatures in Fairbanks are recorded in January with the extreme cold lasting two to three days.

Grand Forks

Grand Forks is located in North Dakota and is the third largest city in the state. The city is the county seat of Grand Forks County and has a population of 52,838. The city was incorporated officially on February 22, 1881. The minimum monthly average temperature of Grand Forks is -3.1 degrees F and its average maximum monthly temperature is 56.3 degrees F. Grand Forks, North Dakota comes in second as the coldest city in the US and had -43 degrees F as the lowest ever recorded temperature.

Williston

Located in North Dakota, the city of Williston is the county seat of Williams County. The city has a population of 14,716 and was founded in 1887. Williston, North Dakota has a semi-arid climate and records an average minimum temperature of 0.1 degrees F. The average maximum temperature of Williston is 55.8 degrees F. The city is ranked as the third coldest city in the US with the lowest temperature ever recorded reaching -50 degrees F.

Fargo

Fargo is located in North Dakota and is the county seat of Cass County. The city is the most populous city in the state of North Dakota with a population of 120,762. Fargo was founded in 1871, and its motto is “Gateway to the West”. The climate in Fargo is humid and continental as it is located in the Great Plains. The average minimum temperature of Fargo, North Dakota is 0.1 degrees F, while its average maximum temperature stands at 59.5 degrees F. The lowest temperature ever recorded in Fargo is -39 degrees F and these temperatures make it the fourth coldest city in the US.

Effects Of Extreme Winter Conditions

Most of the extreme winter conditions are experienced around December and January in the US. Extreme winter conditions may cause the loss of electricity due to damaged electrical wires. Humans are affected by severe winter storms in many ways including hypothermia and difficulty in breathing which may result from a reduction of air pressure. In extreme cases, it may lead to death. Transport is also affected by extreme winter storms and may lead to the closure of roads, accidents and terrible traffic jams. When people fail to go to work due to extreme winter condition the economy is affected in a significant way.

What is the Coldest Cities in the United States?

The coldest cities in the United States include Fairbanks, Grand Forks, Williston, Fargo, and Duluth.

10 Coldest Cities in the USA

Rank	City	State	Minimum Average Temperature	Lowest Recorded Temperature
1	Fairbanks	Alaska	-16.9 °F	-66 °F
2	Grand Forks	North Dakota	-3.1 °F	-43 °F
3	Williston	North Dakota	0.1 °F	-50 °F
4	Fargo	North Dakota	0.1 °F	-39 °F
5	Duluth	Minnesota	1.5 °F	-39 °F
6	Aberdeen	South Dakota	1.5 °F	-46 °F
7	St. Cloud	Minnesota	1.8 °F	-43 °F
8	Bismarck	North Dakota	2.2 °F	-44 °F
9	Marquette	Michigan	5.2 °F	-34 °F
10	Huron	South Dakota	6.6 °F	-43 °F

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source https://gradaxis.com/the-coldest-cities-in-the-usa/